Explain the Theory of Natural Law - 1808 Words

January 2001 Explain the theory of Natural law (25 marks) The theory of natural law originates from Aristotle’s idea of goodness as fitness for purpose and stoic’s concept of a universal law of reason which is in agreement with nature. What we now call human nature. This point is then furthered by Aquinas who agrees with the argument but furthers it by linking it with his Christian belief by saying following this law is equivalent to following the command of God as human nature is in us inbuilt into us from when God created us. Aristotle believed that every object has a specific purpose and function and that its supreme good is to fulfil that purpose. This includes humans, Aristotle believes that humans also have a purpose and function†¦show more content†¦Aquinas didn’t think about circumstances and situations as he said the primary precepts are objectively true for everyone and that using our reason we can find the answer in every situation by using this principle making this absolute. It has since been updated by implementing the doctrine of double effect. This is idea that in some situations you have to do a bad action in order to achieve a good consequence. For example if a woman has cancer but is pregnant as well it is fine to give her chemotherapy as it will save her life even though it will kill her unborn foetus as the action or intention isn’t meant to kill the baby but to save the life of the mother. The theory of natural law can be argued that it is out of date and should be updated with the ever developing world and our developing understanding of human nature. As previously it was acceptable for someone to kill one another however it goes against the precepts of preserving human life and to live in an ordered peaceful society. Also the idea of using contraception in order to prevent the spreading of STD’s and HIV/AIDS not to prevent the production of a child but as it goes against the precept of reproduction its wrong. Overall the concept of natural law is to establish a standard of morality which is independent of Gods will as Gods will is shown through eternal law which is whereShow MoreRelatedExplain Natural Law Theory Essay1128 Words   |  5 PagesExplain Natural Law theory In this essay, I will discuss the theories behind Natural Law, as well as the qualities it is seen to possess. I will explain Aquinas’ concepts and theory on Natural Law, discussing eudaimonia and the doctrine of the double effect. Finally, I will reflect on some of the positive and negative aspects, in summarising Natural Law theory. It is important to highlight that Natural Laws differ from acts which occur naturally. There are many aspects to Natural Law, the firstRead MoreExplain Finnis’ Natural Law Theory Essay757 Words   |  4 PagesExplain Finnis’ Natural Law Theory (30 marks) John Finnis, an Australian legal philosopher has tried to resurrect the natural law tradition in moral philosophy and law since the mid-1960s. He tries to offer a neo-Aquinian natural law philosophy which does not presuppose a divine being. By focusing attention on goods rather than a single Good, Finnis skilfully articulates what he calls a theory of moral action for our day. Or, in other words, he seeks a theory of how to live well. Finnis identifiesRead MoreDisadvantages Of H. L. Harts Theory1657 Words   |  7 Pageslegal theory, which describes what the law is, this being the dominant question raised by legal philosophy2. The pivotal tenets of positivism in general are that law is a set of exhaustive rules and the validity of such is due to their method of adoption, not content. This essay analyses the advantages of H.L.A Hart’s theory against Austin’s classical positivism, as Hart’s method brought clarity and sophistication to Austin’s theory. Furth er, the advantage of Hart’s ‘minimum content of natural law’Read MoreMoral Theories Of Human Rights1614 Words   |  7 PagesMaster of Human Rights Peace and Development What do you understand under the philosophy of human rights and the reality of moral theories? PROF G. MENELICK : PHR 500 Laurelle Mbaradza 160563 Date _______________________________11 February 2017 ABSTRACT The paper gives a roadmap on the foundations of human rights from the mediaeval to modern times. It explains the need for one to understand the philosophical foundations of human rights so that one can adequately understand human rightsRead MoreThe Divine Command Theory And The Natural Law Theory Essay1691 Words   |  7 Pagesthat have this ability since animals cannot differentiate between right and wrong. (Pisemenny, 2016) Two theories were developed that linked morality and religion are the Divine Command Theory and the Natural Law Theory. In this paper, I will discuss how the Divine Command Theory and the Natural Law Theory differ and how the Natural Law Theory is more effective. The Divine Command Theory is a theory that was analyzed by many philosophers and it is believed mainly by Christians, Jews, and Muslims. (RachelsRead MoreScientific Theory Essay642 Words   |  3 PagesScientific Theory A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspects of the natural world, based on a body of knowledge that has been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Scientist creates scientific theories from hypothesis that have been corroborated through the scientific method, then gather evidence to test their accuracy. The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by its ability to makeRead MoreWhat Makes A Right Act Right And Wrong Act Wrong?1444 Words   |  6 Pagesbest idea of what makes right acts right and wrong acts wrong. In this essay I will argue that an act is right if it accords with the natural law and wrong if it violates the natural law. I will defend Aquinas view by talking about how Aquinas came up with his idea, what Aquinas means by natural law, and backing up Aquinas theory by using Kant and Aristotle theories. Overall, Aquinas was a unique philosopher because he studied the works Immanuel Kant and Aristotle views of right and wrong actsRead MoreThe Second World War1598 Words   |  7 Pagesthat they weren’t guilty of a crime as they were obeying the law of Nazi Germany . Consequently, the trial revived the broader question of whether laws which are inherently immoral can be considered valid law. Moreover, the trial generated fresh debate within jurisprudence, in turn leading many to criticise the previously prominent ideas of Legal Positivism , which in layman’s terms separated law from morality and credited as valid law any bill provided it had gone through the recognised legislativeRead MoreThe Pursuit of a Theory of Everything1489 Words   |  6 PagesA belief in the unifying principles that underlie all natural phenomena was first articulated by Aristotle, who proposed all matter stems from the four elements of nature: earth, air, fire, and water (Duft). The search fo r such principles has since evolved considerably, yet the firmly rooted interest in a fundamental unification persists. Unification is defined as attempts to explain several principles according to one definition or equation. This process occurs in all areas of science, from biologyRead MoreThe Illusion Of The Epoch : Neoclassical Economics As A Case Study1740 Words   |  7 PagesBasically, this means that those in power and those with influence being political, economic, or even social ultimately decide what happens in society and often these ideas are taken as universal truths despite what may actually be. He goes on to explain how that in a â€Å"minority ruling class society† those who are in the minority ruling class must try to rationalize to the much larger working class that the interests of the elites are in the best interest of the society as a whole. In this paper, the

Eating Disorders in Teenagers Essay - 511 Words

Eating Disorders in Teenagers Eating disorders are a growing problem in teenagers of today. According to an Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD) study, eighty-six percent of eating disorder victims report their problem before the age of twenty. The two main types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that usually strikes women. There are about seven million women who have anorexia, and many of them will die of complications. This disease is defined as self-starvation, leading to a body weight that is 15% below normal. Accompanied with the weight loss are hyperactivity, hypothermia, and amenorrhea. Hypothermia is when the bodys natural†¦show more content†¦There are two sub-types of anorexia nervosa. The first is the restricting type. People fitting this type do not engage in binge eating or purging. The second type, binge eating/purging, is exactly the opposite. The victim does engage in binge eating and purging. One in ten cases of anorexia leads to death, either by starvation, cardiac arrest, or suicide. There are many other less serious physical complications of anorexia. Victims may suffer from dry skin, brittle nails, hypothermia, and anemia, just to name a few. Anorexia does not just cause physical problems. Psychological complications are also often obvious in anorexia victims. Th e majority of individuals with anorexia also suffer from clinical depression. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, an illness characterized by repetitive thoughts and behaviors, can also accompany anorexia. Individuals with anorexia are typically compliant in personality but may have sudden outbursts of hostility and anger or become socially withdrawn. Bulimia nervosa is the other most common eating disorder. This disorder is also most common in women. It is defined as an illness involving uncontrolled episodes of overeating, or binging, usually followed by self-induced vomiting, or purging. These episodes may occur several times a day. The affected person usually realizes that something is wrong, and may feel guilty about the binge/purge episodes. Like anorexia, thereShow MoreRelatedEating disorders amongst teenagers900 Words   |  4 PagesEating disorders amongst teenagers The initial step I took in my search for books on my topic was by writing into Deakin library home page search engine: ‘eating disorders teenagers.’ I was then able to narrow down the results by clicking onto the books only selection on the left hand side of the page. As I was searching from home, I clicked on the Internet option over the physical book. By clicking onto the Ebook Library (owned titles) under the ‘status’ category, it opened up another windowRead MoreTeenagers Are Suffering With Multiple Eating Disorders1484 Words   |  6 PagesIn America, many teenagers are suffering with multiple eating disorders. Once they begin to monitor what to eat, they tend to perform many exercise routines followed by the lack of not eating, these situations should be alarming to the parent that something is not right. Thus, what can we do to resolve this situation among teens? Parents should first become informed towards the issue which their child is facing and take action immediately to save their child from the dangerous activities. It is importantRead MoreEating Disorders Among Teenagers: Annotated Bibliography1915 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction This research task is based on the prevalence of eating disorders amongst teenage girls in our School amongst the ages of 15-18. This is a valid topic as being a teenage female in an all-girls school; it is a very easily relatable topic. I am interested to find out about the prevalence of eating disorders in my school and ultimately in helping the girls who are suffering from a disorder and are not getting the sufficient help that is needed when one if suffering from Bulimia or AnorexiaRead MoreEating Disorders Among Teenagers And Young Adults1007 Words   |  5 Pagesthrough life everyday, and you might be surprised by the fact that at least one of your peers could be experiencing this. Eating disorders affect thousands of teens and young adults around the world, especially young girls just like you. They are serious emotional disorders that can threaten your self-esteem, your relationships, your health and maybe even your life. Eating disorders are among the most challenging condi tions anyone can face, especially when that person refuses to tell anyone about itRead More Eating Disorders Essay1010 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Eating disorders are psychological problems marked by an obsession with food and weight. There are four general categories of eating disorders these are; Anorexia nervosa, Binge eating and Bulimia nervosa. However this disorder affects individuals of various age groups; it has become more popular among teenagers these days. For the purpose of this research plan the writer will focus on age group of ages 15 to 19 because teenagers most vulnerable to eating disorders fall into thisRead MoreMedia s Effect On Teenage Girls1196 Words   |  5 Pagessociety defines as the ideal body. As a teenager one wants to fit in with the most popular group. Recent movies like â€Å"Mean girls† and â€Å"16 wishes† have shown the role of the popular girl to be thin, beautiful, and smart. As a media consumer, females assume that if they achieve this look they will become popular as well. Many teenagers go through stressing situations in order to accomplish the ideal body image. For ins tance, many teenagers develop eating disorders or go through plastic surgery. TodayRead MoreGlobalization of Eating Disorders1382 Words   |  6 PagesThe Globalization of Eating Disorders Eating disorders are a huge problem across the nation. Some of these disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia-nervosa, binge eating, and body dysmorphic disorder. Anorexia is a disorder in which subject obsesses about food and how much they eat, while a Bulimic person eats an excessive amount of food, then purges. People affected by these disorders are obsessed with food however; they do not want the calories, so they eat as much as they can, then throw itRead MoreEating Disorders And Body Image1613 Words   |  7 Pages Eating disorders and body image Cenia Xu Father Michael Mcgivney Catholic Academy Effects of Eating disorders have on teenagers Every day, teenagers are surrounded by different messages from different sources that impact the way they feel about the way they look. For some, poor body image is a sign of a serious problem: an eating disorder. Eating disorders are not just about food.The eating disorders containRead MoreEssay on Photo-shopped Lies1050 Words   |  5 PagesThis affects the way teens see themselves resulting in drastic measures such as eating disorders, cosmetic surgery, and bullying one another for being different. The first case of an eating disorder recognized medically was in 1873 (â€Å"Key Events†). The eating disorder was anorexia nervosa and was associated with one’s personal physiological factors. In this time period, it was unknown that a lot of cases of eating disorders was not an exclusively a mental illness, but a result of society’s impacts onRead MoreAnorexia Bulimia: Why Are American Teens Starving Themselves?1533 Words   |  7 Pages Image is very crucial for a teenager; the pressure of school and fitting in with there classmates and friends can be very difficult for a teenager. It is when a teenager starts taking image to the extreme and starts harming themselves by starving themselves. More and more teenagers are becoming anorexic and bulimic and it is not only affecting girls but boys are starting to come out and say they have an eating disorder. Anorexia and bulimia is a disorder that can not be taken lightly and needs

Miracle of Jesus free essay sample

Miracles Of Jesus A miracle is an extraordinary and surprising happening that may not be explained by normal standards and is therefore attributed to the presence and action of a supernatural or divine power. Jesus Christ Himself was a miracle. From the manner of His Birth, to His Resurrection, and everything in between, He lived a wonderfully miraculous life entirely unlike any other human. A miracle is an unusual event which may or may not bring with it surprise.A miracle is also a significant event, and hopefully to a good purpose. And a miracle can be done to authenticate a person and his or her message. # Throughout the bible Jesus Christ has preformed a great deal of miracles. The miracles that I am going to cover in this essay is the miracle of making water into wine, the feeding of the crowd of 5000+, and the resurrection of Lazarus. There was a wedding that was held at Cana in Galilee, Jesus, his mother, and his disciples were all attending the wedding. We will write a custom essay sample on Miracle of Jesus or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Evidently many of the people had traveled a great distance to hear Jesus. When Jesus arrived, Jesus had found that Lazarus had already been in the tomb for four days. Lazarus had many friends who were still there grieving with Martha and Mary the sisters of Lazarus. Jesus himself was affected, as described in the simple verse, Jesus wept. Jesus tells the disciples â€Å"They do no need to go away. You give the something to eatâ€Å"#, and he asks Philip where they should buy bread to feed the people . Jesus was testing Philip.He already knew what he was going to do. This was a test designed to teach. Jesus wanted them to deal with their own thoughts and their own solutions before he shows them what he is going to do. His goal was for them to come to him and ask him to do it. The master of the banquet had no idea were the wine had come from. He called for the bridegroom aside and said â€Å"Everyone brings out the choice wine first and then the cheaper wine after the guest have had to much to drink; but you have saved the best till now. # This was the first of the incredible signs, Jesus performed in Galilee. After a bri Some topics in this essay: Galilee Jesus, Jesus Jesus, Jesus Christ, Birth Resurrection, Lazarus Jesus, Immediately Lazarus, Lazarus Bethany, Jesus Martha, God Jesus, jesus christ, Lazarus Apparently, jesus christ miracle, master banquet, miracle talk, lazarus jesus, lazarus sick, feed crowd, resurrection lazarus, miracles jesus, christ miracle, days lazarus,

Strategic Decision Making Essay Example For Students

Strategic Decision Making Essay In a dynamic and uncertain environment, Strategic Decision Making Essay is important because it can provide managers with a systematic and comprehensive means for taking into account the external environment, focusing on an organisations strength, minimising weaknesses, and identifying opportunities in which an organisation can have a competitive advantage. However, the decision may still fail if it is not implemented properly. Implementation causes the chosen course of action to be carried out within the organisation. It is that moment in the total decision-making process when the choice is transformed from an abstraction into and operational activity. Harrison (1999, p. 39) We will write a custom essay on Strategic Decision Making specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Implementation a strategic decision includes conveying the decision to those affected and getting their commitment to it. It is an integral component of successful decision making and attaining managerial objectives. No matter how effective strategic planning has been, it cannot succeed if it is not implemented properly. Without effective implementation of a decision, the outcome may not be according to desired results. Harrison (p.40) comments management can determine how implementation affects the intended outcome inherent in the managerial objective. Paul Nutt (1998) research report into the; Leverage, Resistance and the Success Of Implementation Approaches, asserts that there is limited investigations into the success of decision implementation. Nutt (1998, p.213) argues that analysis of decision cases will explore the following crucial factors involved in successful decision implementation. 1.How managers go about implementing strategic decisions 2.Are implementation approaches different between top and middle managers 3. Do top and middle managers use these approaches in similar proportions. Nutt (1998 p. 213) identified four distinct implementation approaches: Intervention, Participation, Persuasion and Edict that were being used by top and middle management. Nutt (p. 235) argues that intervention is the best way to implement strategic decisions The following paper will compare and contrast these four implementation approaches and argue the reason as to why intervention is a more valuable way for managers to be successful in implementing strategic decisions and attaining managerial objectives. Firstly, it is important to note that the four implementation approaches, their frequency of use by top and middle managers, and their success demonstrates how managers implement strategic decisions and the outcomes to be achieved. Nutt (p. 223) argues that top and middle management were using the same types of approaches but in different proportions and with different results. Therefore Nutts analyses of the research findings are predominantly discussed as differences between top and middle management which concluded that top managers seemed to be more successful mainly because of the implementation approach they used. The study measured success by three main indicators; Adoption, Value and efficiency. Nutt (p.220) defined these three success indicators as follows: Adoption: Is if a decision is put to use. Based on other research conducted by scholars two measures were created called sustained and complete adoption. Sustained adoption adds ultimate adoption and deletes ultimate rejections Value: Are the benefits the decision has to the organisation. Measured by secondary informants being asked to provide value ratings. A questionnaire with an anchored scale with five anchors was used to collect the ratings. The scale anchors defined as a rating of 5 as outstanding and a rating of 1 as poor. Efficiency: The duration taken to implement the decision. Obtained by a questionnaire asking to determine the time from need recognition to development of the plan and the elapsed time from the development of the plan to full use or abandonment of the plan. This was then calculated by the sum of these two measures times by the measures in months, averaged over the estimates made by the informants. .

Aggression Studies in Modern World

Aggression Studies in Modern World Empirical studies on aggression have revealed the motivation behind extreme forms of aggression. Increased homicide rates are attributed to aggression. Studies in a number of industrialized countries have recorded increase in aggression with some causes of the increased form of violence being accessibility of weapons, global warming, exposure to violent media and violence against young children among others.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Aggression Studies in Modern World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Daffern, Howells, Ogloff (2007, 104) theoretical analyses and fresh empirical discoveries have led to promising treatment of aggressive behaviour. Various authors have used different approaches to decipher the major causes of aggression and why it is prevalent in men than in women. Moreover, some studies have indicated that women are involved in indirect forms of aggression. This essay will provide an analysis of aggression as revealed in various articles. Empirical Studies on Aggression Daffern, Howells, Ogloff, (2007, 104) describe various definitions and theories of aggression. Their article is divided into sections that delve on outcomes, routes, and sources of aggression. On the other hand, Richardson Green (2003, 13) offer an extensive insight into the aggression phenomenon by offering a description from philosophers, scholars and men of letters. Through ethology, psychoanalytic study on patients, and psychoendocrinologic research, the authors provides an overview of various causes of aggression. Daffern, Howells, Ogloff (2007, 107) and Rappaport Thomas (2004, 268) classify aggression in various ways. These ways include aggression targets, whether directed to self or to others, aggression mode, whether verbal or physical, indirect or direct, and the causes of aggression, which can be medical. Subtypes of aggression such as impulsive aggression and premeditat ed aggression, have received considerable attention. The latter is a form of aggression not associated with frustrations or response to threats. Premeditated aggression is also known as instrumental aggression or proactive aggression. Individuals who have a clear goal in their minds perpetrate this form of aggression. Contrary, impulsive aggression has the characteristic of precipitation and autonomic arousal through provocation. This form of aggression is usually associated with emotions such as fear or anger. Rappaport Thomas (2004, 268) reveal that impulsive aggression is response to perceived stress. This form of aggression is pathological in case the responses become exaggerated. Sometimes, impulsive aggression may be deemed defensive such as during dangerous threats.Advertising Looking for critical writing on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Methodologies Used An empirical analysis by Richardso n Green, (2003, 15) reveals that more people are dying from interpersonal or self-inflicted violence. This violence is usually caused by impulsive aggression. Anderson Bushman, (2002, 28) reveal that a quarter of all men and half of the women report physical aggression after the age of 18 years. Similar to this study, Richardson Green (2003, 17) claim that impulsive or irritable aggression has a substantial rate of heritability. These findings are consistent with the analysis of a study by Anderson Bushman (2002, 28), who reveal that environmental interactions play a huge role in anti-social and aggressive behaviour. Environmental factors conducive to aggression are familial, cultural, and socioeconomic factors, which have been covered in the aforementioned. Anderson (2010, 414) adds that people with biological risks for aggression are particularly vulnerable to psychosocial adversity effects. For example, some genes interact with maltreatment and adversity during childhood to m ake an individual more inclined to violence. An empirical study by Rappaport Thomas (2004, 260) indicates that impulsive and episodic physical and verbal aggression is associated with psychiatric disorders and is usually seen in some personality disorders. Most of the violent offenders are men who possess severe personality disorders. Assessing individuals for aggressive behaviours requires a well-organized approach, which draws on diagnostic interviews, clinical knowledge and familiarity with the protective, and risk factors. Various methodologies have been adopted in arriving at information regarding aggression. Various determinants of aggression have underlying motivations. Various authors have reviewed interventions such as psychopharmacological treatment, psychosocial treatment, and therapy for cognitive behaviour in an attempt to expand research that defines the optimal treatment for aggressive behaviour (Rappaport Thomas 2004, 261). The empirical study provided by Rappaport Thomas (2004, 261) focuses on important findings on aggression in certain age groups. This coverage is absent in the study by Anderson Bushman (2002, 32) who have excluded conduct disorder, risk factors, and aggression sub-types in their study.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Aggression Studies in Modern World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main areas of their research are individual factors such as gender. Their article delves on aggressive males with little attention on the female due to the large number of males involved in violent crimes and excessive forms of aggression. The main shortcoming of this study is that readers have difficulties understanding the gender differences that exist in aggression because the study only had male participants. The cross-sectional study adopted by Richardson Green (2003, 17) helps to understand the gender characteristics of aggressive behaviour because it r elies on a follow-up which gives a history of aggressive behaviour in girls and the symptoms shown by the aggressive girls. Epidemiological studies such as the one conducted by Anderson (2010, 414) reveals that conduct disorder is a severe mental disorder prevalent in adolescent girls and that leads to aggression. Aggression in females has increased in recent years because of several biological factors. However, Anderson (2010, 415) does not unravel interaction between the causative factors and fails to identify developmental trajectories that would determine mechanisms for outcomes of aggression by the females. Similar to the aforementioned study, Rappaport Thomas (2004, 262) have recognized that girls are exposed to biological insults as the boys are. However, this exposure has minimum ramifications to the girls than it is to the boys. The outcomes from this study have methodological shortcomings because of relying on cross-sectional studies. With this study, it becomes a dauntin g task to measure prenatal exposure to aggression with precision. Moreover, it is increasingly difficult to measure risk factors, which confound the results. Despite the aforementioned limitations, increased vulnerability of the males to various sources of stress has been revealed. It is important to outline reasons why the females are less inclined towards antisocial behaviour related to prenatal exposure. Daffern, Howells, Ogloff, (2007, 103) use a functional analytic approach to gauge and classify determinants and idiosyncratic functions of aggression. Such an approach has not been embraced in assessing aggression in psychiatric patients. This is notwithstanding that the methodology has demonstrated efficacy in coming up with prescriptions for problem behaviours like self-injury.Advertising Looking for critical writing on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A function analytic approach is necessary for understanding problems in anger management and aggression. As part of research on antisocial behaviour and aggression, Daffern, Howells, Ogloff (2007, 103) have developed a method to classify functions of antisocial and aggressive tendencies in aggressive patients. The functions assessed in the study are the need to seek approval from the society, the need to force compliance, and the need to express anger among other factors. This classification enables one to recognize the functions served by aggression, some of which may be intended and most of which may influence the odds of occurrence of aggressive behaviour in the future. Pro-Social Behaviour and Aggression Observational studies by Ostrov, Woods, Jansen, Casas, Crick (2004, 357) was meant to provide information on aggression in young children. Contrary to the other studies, this study has assessed the subtypes of pro-social behaviour and aggression. This study revealed that aggre ssive acts in children often occurred in groups of more than two children. Children were found to possess particular behavioral styles. Particularly, the boys used physical behaviors why the girls used verbal behavior to express themselves. In general, this approach was instrumental in the discovery of subtypes of aggressive behaviors such as physical aggression, verbal aggression, nonverbal aggression, and relational aggression. These subtypes were important indicators of mean and hostile behavior indicated in other study by Rappaport Thomas, (2004, 265). Furthermore, Ostrov, Woods, Jansen, Casas, Crick (2004, 356), examined, received, and delivered pro-social behavior to provide a balanced assessment of aggression in children. The study reveals that boys and girls used different aggression tactics. The boys used physical aggression while the girls were aggressive in the manner they related with other people. Great importance can be attached to the methodology used in this study as it predicts how boys are likely to receive physical aggression while the girls were more inclined to receive relational aggression. Verbal aggression was noticed in both girls and boys while nonverbal aggression was prevalent among girls. The disparities that exist in expressing among men and women have been articulated. Research by Ostrov, Woods, Jansen, Casas, Crick (2004, 357) is based on a model that reflects the degree of disparities between women and men in their expression of aggression. The gender disparities in aggression have been given less attention during empirical researches. Through this research, evidence has linked aggression and hostility to men with little information on how women tend to express aggression. These developments are based on theories on gender differences, which indicates the extent to which men are more predisposed to direct aggression while females are subjected to indirect forms of aggression. Two models have been used to account for the gend er disparities in aggression. These are the threat model and the model of social sanctions. The latter states that aggressive behaviour tends to be linked to social expectations. An examination of each of the aforementioned models determines how aggression is exhibited. The age of the individual targeted by the aggressor is a major consideration. Rappaport Thomas (2004, 268) have examined the effects of the gender of the aggressor and the target. Questionnaires have been used to measure subtypes of aggression. Similar to the results in the study by Anderson(2010, 34), Rappaport Thomas (2004, 260) found out that the females reported indirect aggression than they reported direct aggression. Moreover, males and females had no disparities in indirect aggression. In addition, the amount of aggression delivered to the females directly was not different with the one delivered to the males. The main shortcoming of this study is that the results from this study invalidated the proposed mod els. In the light of this, there exists the need for more research that explores gender disparities in the target and the aggressor. Furthermore, despite the compelling insight given by both models regarding the mechanisms used to arrive at the gender disparities by both models, the models fail in exploring changes in several aspects of gender disparities. Various studies have ignored this feasible explanation. Anderson (2010, 34-36) indicates that there is the need for observation and confirmation of how victimization and aggression affects children’s behavior. The study came up with results with evidence supporting aggression that is based on gender during childhood. Young participants in the study provided evidence, which revealed that trajectories for aggression based on gender began in early childhood with both boys and girls experiencing and exhibiting certain levels of aggression in the pre-school years. These results are contrary to the study by Daffern, Howells, Ogl off (2007, 112), which is based on the numerous theories of development of aggression. These results provide important information regarding anti-social behaviors exhibited by children. Previous researches had indicated that the narrow scope of children’s social and cognitive skills, and the use of relational aggression in them was immature to some extent. Concisely, their aggressive acts have been deemed as mainly direct and unlikely to harm other children. However, the research conducted by Rappaport Thomas (2004, 264-266) indicates that pre-scholars show advanced and complicated aggression strategies involving gossips, rumors, and lies. These behaviors are direct but covert or subtle in nature. The study above reveals strong evidence of the presence of aggression in children and the need for a comprehensive study on the trend. The study by Rappaport Thomas (2004, 265) replicated another study by Daffern, Howells, Ogloff (2007, 103), which had findings that suggested the absence of nonverbal aggression in preschoolers. Children are open when expressing aggression in a verbal way and they tend to use insults in this form of aggression. Extra research on this subject may help in examining the findings made by the authors regarding the lack of observable disparities in verbal and nonverbal forms of aggression. Conclusion In summary, various articles on aggression have been analyzed. According to studies on aggression, aggression takes many forms and its goal is usually to hurt an individual. Several empirical studies have been examined. These studies have revealed that the motivations behind aggression are multi-faceted. Increased homicide in a number of countries has been attributed to aggression. In industrialized countries, aggression has been exacerbated by easy access to dangerous weapons such as rifles. Global warming and exposure to a violent media are also some of the causes of increased aggression in these countries. Recommendations in these studies indicated that aggressive behavior might soon find appropriate treatment. References Anderson, CA Bushman, BJ 2002, ‘Human aggression’ Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 53, no.1, pp. 27-51. Anderson, M 2010, ‘Reconceptualizing Aggression’ Duke Law Journal, vol.60, no.2, pp. 411-451. Daffern, M, Howells, K, Ogloff, J 2007, ‘Whats the point? Towards a methodology for assessing the function of psychiatric inpatient aggression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, vol.45, no.1, pp. 101–111. Ostrov, JM, Woods, KE, Jansen, EA, Casas, JF, Crick, NR 2004, ‘An observational study of delivered and received aggression,gender, and social-psychological adjustment in preschool:â€Å"This White Crayon Doesn’t Work †, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, vol.19, no.1, pp. 355–371. Rappaport, N Thomas, C 2004, ‘Recent Research Findings on Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Youth: Implications for Clinical,’ Journal Of Adolescent Health, vol.35, no.4, pp. 260–277. Richardson, SD, Green, LR 2003, ‘Defining direct and indirect aggression: The Richardson Conflict Response Questionnaire,’ International Review of Social Psychology, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 11-30.

Albert Gallatin Inspired the Age of Canals in America

Albert Gallatin Inspired the Age of Canals in America An era of canal building in the United States began in the early 1800s, helped along to a considerable degree by a report written by Thomas Jefferson’s secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin. The young country was hobbled by a horrendous transportation system which made it difficult, or even impossible, for farmers and small manufacturers to move goods to market. American roads at the time were rough and unreliable, often little more than obstacle courses hacked out of the wilderness. And reliable transportation by water was often out of the question due to rivers that were impassable at points of waterfalls and rapids. In 1807 the U.S. Senate passed a resolution calling upon the treasury department to compile a report proposing ways that the federal government could address the transportation problems in the nation. The report by Gallatin drew upon the experience of Europeans, and helped inspire Americans to begin building canals. Ultimately the railroads made canals less useful, if not entirely obsolete. But Americans canals were successful enough that when the Marquis de Lafayette returned to America  in 1824, one of the sights Americans wanted to show him were new canals that made commerce possible. Gallatin Was Assigned to Study Transportation Albert Gallatin, a brilliant man serving in Thomas Jefferson’s cabinet, was thus handed a task he apparently approached with great eagerness. Gallatin, who was born in Switzerland in 1761, had held a variety of governmental posts. And before entering the political world, he had a varied career, at one point running a rural trading post and later teaching French at Harvard. With his experience in commerce, not to mention his European background, Gallatin fully understood that for the United States to become a major nation, it needed to have efficient transportation arteries. Gallatin was familiar with the canal systems which had been built in Europe in the late 1600s and 1700s. France had built canals which made it possible to transport wine, lumber, farm goods, lumber, and other essential products throughout the country. The British had followed Frances lead, and by 1800 English entrepreneurs were busy constructing what would become a thriving network of canals. Gallatins Report Was Startling His 1808 landmark Report on Roads, Canals, Harbors, and Rivers was astounding in its scope. In more than 100 pages, Gallatin detailed a vast array of what today would be called infrastructure projects. Some of the projects Gallatin proposed were: A series of canals parallel to the Atlantic coast from New York City to South CarolinaA major turnpike from Maine to GeorgiaA series of inland canals heading to OhioA canal crossing New York stateImprovements to make rivers, including the Potomac, Susquehanna, James, and Santee, passable to major river navigation The entire projected expense for all the construction work proposed by Gallatin was $20 million, an astronomical sum at the time. Gallatin suggested spending $2 million a year for ten years, and also selling stock in the various turnpikes and canals to finance their eventual upkeep and improvements. Gallatins Report Was Far Ahead of Its Time Gallatin’s plan was a marvel, but very little of it was actually implemented. In fact, Gallatins plan was widely criticized as folly, as it would require a vast outlay of government funds. Thomas Jefferson, although an admirer of Gallatins intellect, thought his treasury secretarys plan might be unconstitutional. In Jeffersons view, such vast spending by the federal government on public works would only be possible after amending the Constitution to allow for it. While Gallatins plan was seen as wildly impractical when it was submitted in 1808, it became the inspiration for many later projects. For instance, the Erie Canal was eventually built across New York state and opened in 1825, but it was built with state, not federal funds. Gallatins idea of a series of canals running along the Atlantic coast was never implemented, but the eventual creation of the intra-coastal waterway essentially made Gallatins idea a reality. The Father of The National Road Albert Gallatin’s vision of a great national turnpike running from Maine to Georgia may have seem utopian in 1808, but it was an early vision of the interstate highway system. And Gallatin did get to implement one major road building project, the National Road which was started in 1811. Work began in western Maryland, at the town of Cumberland, with construction crews moving both eastward, toward Washington, DC, and westward, toward Indiana. The National Road, which was also called the Cumberland Road, was finished, and became a major artery. Wagons of farm products could be brought east. And many settlers and emigrants headed west along its route. The National Road lives on today. It is now the route of US 40 (which was eventually extended to reach the west coast). Later Career and Legacy of Albert Gallatin After serving as treasury secretary for Thomas Jefferson, Gallatin held ambassadorial posts under presidents Madison and Monroe. He was instrumental in negotiating the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. Following decades of government service, Gallatin moved to New York City where he became a banker and also served as president of the the New York Historical Society. He died in 1849, having lived long enough to see some of his visionary ideas become reality. Albert Gallatin is regarded as one of the most influential treasury secretaries in American history. A statue of Gallatin stands today in Washington, D.C., before the U.S. Treasury building.

Case study 3C Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case study 3C - Assignment Example 3. I guess that people paying for the lottery are mostly aware of the fact that they pay additional taxes if they understand how the state tax system works. Moreover, the amount of money a person pays for a lottery ticket is not that big to create problems for a person spending money on it. The Oregon Lottery was playing on some kind of local patriotism making its customers believe that buying lottery will contribute to the development of the state and this claim was unethical because it was only partially true. 4. Brands often make advertising statements exaggerating things and emphasizing something that is only half true. Oregon Lottery was using a deceitful tool for attracting clients, and their approach can hardly be called ethical. 1. Creative vagueness in statements is utilized to attract customers as in most cases there is a range of brands similar in their characteristics, and it is only advertising that can persuade a customer choose one product over another. However, if the information about the products would be as precise as facts in the news that could be very useful for consumers. 3. The response of Oregon Lottery on the accusation of Politifacts.com was as vague their advertising campaign: they decide to mothball this â€Å"97 percent† but claimed that they decided to stick to it nevertheless. It would be more optimal to provide public with facts and figures proving truthfulness of their statements. 1. I suppose that lottery can easily serve as a means of support of public education as any other legal business. The only thing is that consumers must be fully aware how much and why they are paying for. 2. An ethical campaign for a local lottery must first of all use truthful statements in advertising campaign. The possibility of financial profit can serve as a motto for the company as it is its primary goal. Moreover, the